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NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC LEARNING

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Unit 2

Are Superheroes Good Role Models?

What does science say about our favorite heroes?

Lead-in 01

Who's your favorite superhero — and why do you think they're a hero? 🦸‍♀️

Superheroes are everywhere — from cinema screens to kids' bedrooms. But do they actually make us better people, or worse?

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Psychology

Mind & behavior

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VR Experiment

Stanford study

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Kids & Play

Power fantasy

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Dark Side

Aggression risk

Let's put superheroes on the couch and find out what science says.

Reading 02

Skimming Task ⏱️

Read the article quickly (90 seconds). Answer three questions:

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WHO?

Which researchers / experts appear in this article?

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WHAT?

What did the Stanford VR experiment show?

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HOW / WHY?

Are superheroes good or bad role models?

✅ WHO: Bailenson (Stanford), Dr. Bailey, Sharon Lamb, Jeff Greenberg  |  WHAT: People who "flew like Superman" picked up 15% more pens  |  HOW/WHY: Debate: heroes can inspire helpfulness, BUT modern heroes may also model aggression
Section One
The Stanford Experiment
Can feeling like a superhero change how helpful you are?
Reading 03
Superheroes Are Everywhere
Superheroes are everywhere: in comic books, movies, video games, and in posters on buses and trains. But what effect, if any, do superheroes have on our behavior? A research team at Stanford University decided to explore this question by setting up a virtual reality experiment. In the study, people were given a mission — to find and rescue a sick child. One group of participants was made to feel as though they could fly like Superman, while another group attempted the same task in a virtual helicopter. After the mission, each participant was interviewed.
The colon introduces an illustrative list that expands and proves "everywhere." The list moves from traditional media (comic books, movies) to interactive media (video games) to physical space (posters on buses and trains). The final item — "on buses and trains" — is the most unexpected, showing that superhero culture extends even into commuting. This escalation makes "everywhere" feel genuinely comprehensive.
Reading 04
The Research Question
Superheroes are everywhere: in comic books, movies, video games, and in posters on buses and trains. But what effect, if any, do superheroes have on our behavior? A research team at Stanford University decided to explore this question by setting up a virtual reality experiment. In the study, people were given a mission — to find and rescue a sick child. One group of participants was made to feel as though they could fly like Superman, while another group attempted the same task in a virtual helicopter. After the mission, each participant was interviewed.
'If any' is a parenthetical qualifier expressing genuine uncertainty — the author is not assuming an effect exists. This is a journalistic and scientific virtue: the question is open. Without "if any," the sentence would imply an effect definitely exists and ask only about its nature. With it, the author signals: we do not yet know if there is an effect at all. This is true inquiry, not confirmation bias.
Reading 05b
Stanford Research Setup
Superheroes are everywhere: in comic books, movies, video games, and in posters on buses and trains. But what effect, if any, do superheroes have on our behavior? A research team at Stanford University decided to explore this question by setting up a virtual reality experiment. In the study, people were given a mission — to find and rescue a sick child. One group of participants was made to feel as though they could fly like Superman, while another group attempted the same task in a virtual helicopter. After the mission, each participant was interviewed.
'Decided to explore' signals that the research question arose from the debate, not from a pre-existing data set. The verb 'explore' suggests open inquiry — not testing a predetermined hypothesis but investigating an unknown. This frames the study as inductive research: go in with a question, see what the data says. The word choice positions the Stanford team as rigorous and fair-minded, not ideologically motivated.
Reading 05
The VR Mission
Superheroes are everywhere: in comic books, movies, video games, and in posters on buses and trains. But what effect, if any, do superheroes have on our behavior? A research team at Stanford University decided to explore this question by setting up a virtual reality experiment. In the study, people were given a mission — to find and rescue a sick child. One group of participants was made to feel as though they could fly like Superman, while another group attempted the same task in a virtual helicopter. After the mission, each participant was interviewed.
A "sick child" is designed to maximize emotional motivation — it is the most morally compelling rescue scenario (innocent, vulnerable, in danger). By choosing this scenario, the researchers maximized the conditions for heroic behavior. If participants still didn't help in real life, the case for heroic transfer would be weak. Using a sick child creates the strongest possible test of whether virtual heroism becomes real-world compassion.
Reading 06
Flying vs. Helicopter
Superheroes are everywhere: in comic books, movies, video games, and in posters on buses and trains. But what effect, if any, do superheroes have on our behavior? A research team at Stanford University decided to explore this question by setting up a virtual reality experiment. In the study, people were given a mission — to find and rescue a sick child. One group of participants was made to feel as though they could fly like Superman, while another group attempted the same task in a virtual helicopter. After the mission, each participant was interviewed.
The helicopter group is the control group — they experience the same virtual rescue mission but without the superhero identity (flying). This is the key experimental design principle: to isolate the variable being tested (superhero embodiment), all other conditions must be identical. Without a control group, we cannot know whether any behavioral differences are due to the superhero experience or to the mission itself.
Reading 06b
Post-Mission Interview
Superheroes are everywhere: in comic books, movies, video games, and in posters on buses and trains. But what effect, if any, do superheroes have on our behavior? A research team at Stanford University decided to explore this question by setting up a virtual reality experiment. In the study, people were given a mission — to find and rescue a sick child. One group of participants was made to feel as though they could fly like Superman, while another group attempted the same task in a virtual helicopter. After the mission, each participant was interviewed.
The interview follows the behavior test (picking up pens) and allows researchers to collect self-report data alongside behavioral data. This adds a second dimension: not just what participants did, but how they interpreted their own behavior. The word 'each' is methodologically significant — 100% response rate, ensuring the data represents all participants equally and is not biased by who chose to respond.
Section Two
Results & Children
Heroic behavior transfers — especially for young children.
Reading 07
Superheroes Pick Up More Pens
People who had just flown like Superman were not only quicker to help, but picked up an average of 15 percent more pens. Every “superhero” picked up at least a few pens, whereas some of the helicopter participants failed to offer any help at all. This suggests that heroic behavior in a virtual environment might transfer to helpful behavior in the real world. Superheroes may have a particularly important influence on children. Children have very limited control over many areas of their lives. Therefore, pretending to be a superhero allows a child to act out and process any anxiety that they have, and thereby resolve or reduce underlying fears, claims Dr. Amy Bailey, a clinical psychologist at kidsFIRST Medical Center, Dubai.
'Not only... but' is a correlative conjunction that creates double emphasis: the superhero group was better in two different ways, and both are presented as surprising and noteworthy. Two separate sentences would feel neutral; this structure builds intensity — the second surprise trumps the first. It signals: "here comes an even more remarkable finding." It is a common pattern in argument writing for cumulative proof.
Reading 08
Whereas: Sharp Contrast
People who had just flown like Superman were not only quicker to help, but picked up an average of 15 percent more pens. Every “superhero” picked up at least a few pens, whereas some of the helicopter participants failed to offer any help at all. This suggests that heroic behavior in a virtual environment might transfer to helpful behavior in the real world. Superheroes may have a particularly important influence on children. Children have very limited control over many areas of their lives. Therefore, pretending to be a superhero allows a child to act out and process any anxiety that they have, and thereby resolve or reduce underlying fears, claims Dr. Amy Bailey, a clinical psychologist at kidsFIRST Medical Center, Dubai.
Contrast: every superhero helped (universal, complete) vs. some helicopter participants did not help at all (partial, incomplete). The quotation marks around "superhero" are significant — they remind us that these are participants playing a role, not real heroes. This maintains scientific objectivity. Without the quotes, the text would sound uncritical. The quotes signal awareness that this is a simulated identity.
Reading 09
Behavior Transfer Theory
People who had just flown like Superman were not only quicker to help, but picked up an average of 15 percent more pens. Every “superhero” picked up at least a few pens, whereas some of the helicopter participants failed to offer any help at all. This suggests that heroic behavior in a virtual environment might transfer to helpful behavior in the real world. Superheroes may have a particularly important influence on children. Children have very limited control over many areas of their lives. Therefore, pretending to be a superhero allows a child to act out and process any anxiety that they have, and thereby resolve or reduce underlying fears, claims Dr. Amy Bailey, a clinical psychologist at kidsFIRST Medical Center, Dubai.
Hedges: (1) 'suggests' — cognitive verb; (2) 'might' — modal of weak possibility. The study had clear results (Superman group helped more), but the cause is uncertain. Did it work because of the superhero identity? Or because flying felt more empowering? Or because participants were self-selecting? The author correctly hedges because correlation in one experiment is not universal proof. This is responsible academic language.
Reading 10
Children & Limited Control
People who had just flown like Superman were not only quicker to help, but picked up an average of 15 percent more pens. Every “superhero” picked up at least a few pens, whereas some of the helicopter participants failed to offer any help at all. This suggests that heroic behavior in a virtual environment might transfer to helpful behavior in the real world. Superheroes may have a particularly important influence on children. Children have very limited control over many areas of their lives. Therefore, pretending to be a superhero allows a child to act out and process any anxiety that they have, and thereby resolve or reduce underlying fears, claims Dr. Amy Bailey, a clinical psychologist at kidsFIRST Medical Center, Dubai.
This sentence establishes the logical premise for the argument that follows: children lack power in real life → they seek it symbolically. 'Therefore' in S6 signals a logical consequence based on this premise: because children lack control (cause), they find value in superhero play (effect). Without this premise sentence, the "therefore" would be unjustified. This is a classic premise → therefore → conclusion structure.
Reading 10b
Superheroes and Children
People who had just flown like Superman were not only quicker to help, but picked up an average of 15 percent more pens. Every “superhero” picked up at least a few pens, whereas some of the helicopter participants failed to offer any help at all. This suggests that heroic behavior in a virtual environment might transfer to helpful behavior in the real world. Superheroes may have a particularly important influence on children. Children have very limited control over many areas of their lives. Therefore, pretending to be a superhero allows a child to act out and process any anxiety that they have, and thereby resolve or reduce underlying fears, claims Dr. Amy Bailey, a clinical psychologist at kidsFIRST Medical Center, Dubai.
'May have' is a hedged modal — it signals possibility, not certainty. The author is transitioning from the adult research (the VR study) to a claim about children, where the evidence is less direct. Using "may" respects the epistemic limits of the data while still making a suggestive claim. This prepares the reader for Dr. Bailey's expert testimony, which provides the supporting evidence for this hedged assertion.
Reading 10c
Processing Anxiety Through Play
People who had just flown like Superman were not only quicker to help, but picked up an average of 15 percent more pens. Every “superhero” picked up at least a few pens, whereas some of the helicopter participants failed to offer any help at all. This suggests that heroic behavior in a virtual environment might transfer to helpful behavior in the real world. Superheroes may have a particularly important influence on children. Children have very limited control over many areas of their lives. Therefore, pretending to be a superhero allows a child to act out and process any anxiety that they have, and thereby resolve or reduce underlying fears, claims Dr. Amy Bailey, a clinical psychologist at kidsFIRST Medical Center, Dubai.
'Therefore' is a logical conclusion marker — it signals that what follows is a deduction from the preceding premises (children have limited control → superheroes give them power → therefore superhero play enables anxiety processing). The triple chain act out → process → resolve or reduce presents a therapeutic mechanism. Bailey's expert status is foregrounded at the end ("claims Dr. Amy Bailey...") to validate the conclusion.
Section Three
Critics of Modern Heroes
Today's heroes: aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely virtuous.
Reading 11
Aggression Risk
Bailey adds, “The risk to superhero play is that sometimes children’s behavior can become out of control and escalate into chaotic play as a child becomes submerged in these roles.” She advises parents to limit exposure to more aggressive shows and to have children focus on “other positive characteristics of their favorite hero, such as their clever thinking and care of others.” Concern over the potential effect of aggressive behavior has led to some schools banning superhero play from the classroom altogether. Other psychologists share this concern. Some point to the evolution of the superhero over time, and are critical of modern renditions. “Today’s superhero,” Lamb says, is “aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely speaks to the virtue of doing good for humanity.”
'Submerged' is a water metaphor: the child is beneath the surface of the role, unable to see out. It implies loss of self-awareness and perspective — the child can no longer distinguish between the role and reality. The metaphor also suggests danger (drowning). This is much more vivid than "absorbed" or "involved" — it captures the intensity and risk of over-identification with a fictional role.
Reading 11b
Bailey's Advice to Parents
Bailey adds, “The risk to superhero play is that sometimes children’s behavior can become out of control and escalate into chaotic play as a child becomes submerged in these roles.” She advises parents to limit exposure to more aggressive shows and to have children focus on “other positive characteristics of their favorite hero, such as their clever thinking and care of others.” Concern over the potential effect of aggressive behavior has led to some schools banning superhero play from the classroom altogether. Other psychologists share this concern. Some point to the evolution of the superhero over time, and are critical of modern renditions. “Today’s superhero,” Lamb says, is “aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely speaks to the virtue of doing good for humanity.”
'Advises... to' is a reporting verb + infinitive structure (verb of advice + to-infinitive). It reports Bailey's recommendation indirectly without quoting her. This allows the author to paraphrase efficiently. The structure also creates rhetorical balance: Bailey identifies the risk (sentence 1), then immediately offers the solution (sentence 2). This two-part structure (problem → solution) is a standard expert communication pattern.
Reading 11c
Schools Ban Superhero Play
Bailey adds, “The risk to superhero play is that sometimes children’s behavior can become out of control and escalate into chaotic play as a child becomes submerged in these roles.” She advises parents to limit exposure to more aggressive shows and to have children focus on “other positive characteristics of their favorite hero, such as their clever thinking and care of others.” Concern over the potential effect of aggressive behavior has led to some schools banning superhero play from the classroom altogether. Other psychologists share this concern. Some point to the evolution of the superhero over time, and are critical of modern renditions. “Today’s superhero,” Lamb says, is “aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely speaks to the virtue of doing good for humanity.”
The sentence shows that Bailey's concerns have moved beyond theory into real institutional action. Schools are not just worried — they have responded with policy. The word 'altogether' signals a total ban, not a partial restriction, showing that the concern is taken seriously. The passive-like construction ("has led to... banning") keeps the focus on the consequence, not on who made the decision.
Reading 11d
Shared Concern Among Psychologists
Bailey adds, “The risk to superhero play is that sometimes children’s behavior can become out of control and escalate into chaotic play as a child becomes submerged in these roles.” She advises parents to limit exposure to more aggressive shows and to have children focus on “other positive characteristics of their favorite hero, such as their clever thinking and care of others.” Concern over the potential effect of aggressive behavior has led to some schools banning superhero play from the classroom altogether. Other psychologists share this concern. Some point to the evolution of the superhero over time, and are critical of modern renditions. “Today’s superhero,” Lamb says, is “aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely speaks to the virtue of doing good for humanity.”
After the detailed quotes and complex sentences, this short sentence creates a rhetorical pause. Its simplicity acts as emphasis by contrast — brevity here signals that the point is simple and undeniable: it is not just Bailey; the concern is broadly shared. Short sentences in academic and journalistic writing are often used to land a key claim cleanly, making it stand out among longer explanatory sentences.
Reading 11e
Evolution of the Superhero
Bailey adds, “The risk to superhero play is that sometimes children’s behavior can become out of control and escalate into chaotic play as a child becomes submerged in these roles.” She advises parents to limit exposure to more aggressive shows and to have children focus on “other positive characteristics of their favorite hero, such as their clever thinking and care of others.” Concern over the potential effect of aggressive behavior has led to some schools banning superhero play from the classroom altogether. Other psychologists share this concern. Some point to the evolution of the superhero over time, and are critical of modern renditions. “Today’s superhero,” Lamb says, is “aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely speaks to the virtue of doing good for humanity.”
'Evolution' is a loaded term — it implies gradual, systematic change over time, usually in response to environmental pressures (in this case, commercial and cultural pressures). The word carries both a neutral, scientific tone (change over time) and, in context, an ironic one — evolution usually implies improvement, but here the psychologists are 'critical of modern renditions', suggesting this particular evolution has gone wrong.
Reading 12
Modern Heroes vs. Classic Heroes
Bailey adds, “The risk to superhero play is that sometimes children’s behavior can become out of control and escalate into chaotic play as a child becomes submerged in these roles.” She advises parents to limit exposure to more aggressive shows and to have children focus on “other positive characteristics of their favorite hero, such as their clever thinking and care of others.” Concern over the potential effect of aggressive behavior has led to some schools banning superhero play from the classroom altogether. Other psychologists share this concern. Some point to the evolution of the superhero over time, and are critical of modern renditions. “Today’s superhero,” Lamb says, is “aggressive, sarcastic, and rarely speaks to the virtue of doing good for humanity.”
A direct quote preserves the expert's exact words and tone — and Lamb's language is deliberately strong: "aggressive, sarcastic" are clear value judgments. Paraphrasing ("Lamb says modern heroes have negative qualities") would soften and dilute this. The direct quote gives the expert's voice full force. It also signals to the reader: this is not the author's opinion — this is what the researcher actually said, lending it credibility and accountability.
Reading 12b
Lamb Compares: Stark vs. Superman
Lamb compares the selfish, playboy millionaire Tony Stark (Iron Man) to a superhero of the past, such as Superman. Superman, she points out, had a real job as a newspaper reporter and was dedicated to fighting injustice. More recent characters such as Stark “exploit women, flaunt bling, and convey their manhood with high-powered guns.”
Three negative-value pre-modifiers stack before "Tony Stark" — this is loaded noun phrase pre-modification. Each adjective adds a layer of criticism: selfish (moral failing), playboy (social/sexual irresponsibility), millionaire (class privilege). By packing these in before the name, Lamb frames Stark negatively before the comparison even begins. This is persuasive writing: the outcome of the comparison is predetermined by the characterization.
Reading 13
Superman vs. Iron Man
Lamb compares the selfish, playboy millionaire Tony Stark (Iron Man) to a superhero of the past, such as Superman. Superman, she points out, had a real job as a newspaper reporter and was dedicated to fighting injustice. More recent characters such as Stark “exploit women, flaunt bling, and convey their manhood with high-powered guns.”
Lamb uses Superman's job to argue that classic heroes were grounded in ordinary civic life. A newspaper reporter serves democracy by informing the public. Superman the hero and Clark Kent the reporter share the same values. This is the key contrast: Superman embeds heroism in everyday responsibility. Iron Man, by contrast, is defined by wealth, technology, and spectacle — not by ordinary work or civic duty. Heroism has become a performance, not a way of life.
Reading 12c
Stark: Exploit, Flaunt, Convey
Lamb compares the selfish, playboy millionaire Tony Stark (Iron Man) to a superhero of the past, such as Superman. Superman, she points out, had a real job as a newspaper reporter and was dedicated to fighting injustice. More recent characters such as Stark “exploit women, flaunt bling, and convey their manhood with high-powered guns.”
Three parallel verbs in a list: exploit (use/abuse others), flaunt (display ostentatiously), convey (express through objects). The verbs escalate from interpersonal harm → personal vanity → symbolic violence. The list creates a tricolon — a three-part structure with rhetorical force. The embedded quote (Lamb's own words) makes this a direct accusation: we are hearing the researcher's unfiltered judgment, not the author's paraphrase.
Section Four
Defense & Conclusion
Can superheroes be redesigned to build a better world?
Reading 13b
Confidence and Moral Message
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
'Give' is a direct, certain assertion — it is presented as a fact without hedging. 'Can deliver' is a modal that expresses capacity, not certainty — it can happen, not that it always does. The two-verb structure thus claims one thing as established fact (confidence) while hedging the second claim (moral messaging). This is rhetorically careful: Greenberg makes the strongest claim he can justify, and hedges where the evidence is less direct.
Reading 13c
Powers to Protect the Weak
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
'The weak' is a generic noun phrase (the + adjective used as noun), referring to any vulnerable group. It is deliberately broad — not "the poor" or "the sick" but the universally vulnerable. This framing connects superheroes to a basic moral principle: protecting those less able to protect themselves. The examples (Spider-Man, Superman) are chosen because they are the most culturally ubiquitous and widely-known heroes associated with exactly this ethic.
Reading 14
Greenberg's Defense
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
'Less critical' is carefully neutral — it says only that Greenberg disagrees less with modern superheroes than the critics do. The author does not say Greenberg is "supportive" or "positive" — only that he occupies a different position on the spectrum. This is a classic technique in balanced academic writing: presenting multiple perspectives using comparative language without the author taking sides. It invites the reader to weigh the evidence themselves.
Reading 14b
More Than Entertainment
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
'It is becoming clear' is an impersonal it-cleft construction combined with a progressive aspect ("becoming"). This construction frames the following claim as a growing consensus — not yet universally accepted, but increasingly evident. "Just entertainment" uses scalar implication: "just" downgrades entertainment as if it were a baseline, suggesting superheroes rise above it. This sentence is a pivotal transition, broadening the scope before Bailenson's conclusion.
Reading 14c
Design and Aggressive Behavior
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
This is a first conditional expressing a causal relationship stated as a general truth — if X, then Y happens. By stating this as near-factual ("increases," not "might increase"), Bailenson frames game design as having predictable behavioral consequences. The logic is: design affects behavior. This sets up the positive version: if violent design increases aggression, then empathetic design could increase compassion. The argument is structurally elegant — premise (negative) leads to conclusion (positive).
Reading 15
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
Non-defining relative clauses add extra information about an already-identified noun; they are separated by commas and can be removed without changing the sentence's core meaning. They are different from defining clauses (no commas, necessary for identification). Here, the clauses add crucial context for Greenberg's argument: Daredevil's blindness and Professor X's paralysis are the point — these disabilities are what makes these heroes positive diversity models. Without the clauses, the argument about disability representation would be lost.
Reading 16
Designing Better Heroes
Jeff Greenberg, a social psychology professor at the University of Arizona, is less critical of modern superheroes. According to him, superheroes give children confidence and can deliver a positive moral message. Many superheroes — such as Spider-Man or Superman — use their powers to protect the weak. And more modern superheroes such as Daredevil, who is blind, and Charles Xavier (Professor X), who is paralyzed, promote diversity and present positive images of disability. It is becoming clear that superheroes offer us more than just entertainment. “If you design games that are violent, people’s aggressive behavior increases,” claims Jeremy Bailenson, who led the Stanford University study. But he also believes that video games and other forms of superhero entertainment could be designed to train people to be more empathetic and helpful in the real world — perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.
'Could be designed' is a conditional passive: not "will be" (certain) but "could" (possible). This creates an open invitation — it is a challenge to designers and creators rather than a prediction. The implicit argument: media is not neutral; it shapes behavior (as the experiment shows), so we can and should design it intentionally. The closing reference to Superman is a callback to the introduction, creating circular structure. It ends on a hopeful, empowering note.
Language 17

Language Point 1: whereas vs. while

whereas while contrast connectors
A) "Every 'superhero' picked up pens, whereas some helicopter participants failed to help at all."
→ 'whereas' = formal contrast between two clauses; highlights stark difference

B) "One group flew like Superman, while another group tried the same task in a helicopter."
→ 'while' = simultaneous actions OR mild contrast (less emphatic than 'whereas')

C) ❌ "He is kind, whereas he is sometimes rude." → Awkward — 'whereas' needs two clearly different subjects
✅ "He is kind, while his brother is often rude." → 'while' works for people-comparison

D) RULE: Use whereas for sharp, deliberate contrasts between opposing facts. Use while for simultaneous events or softer comparisons. Both are formal.
In the experiment result sentence, 'whereas' is perfectly chosen. The contrast is not just different — it is opposite: every superhero helped vs. some helicopter participants helped zero people. The word 'whereas' signals: these are not just different outcomes, they are fundamentally incompatible. It maximizes the dramatic impact of the experimental finding.
Language 18

Language Point 2: Modal Verbs for Possibility

might could may
A) "might transfer to helpful behavior" — low possibility; uncertain
"entertainment could be designed to train people" — possible if action is taken
"superheroes may have a particularly important influence" — reasonable possibility

B) Certainty scale:
will > should > may > might ≈ could > would (conditional)

C) ❌ "Superhero games WILL make children violent." → Overclaims; no hedging
❌ "Superhero games might possibly maybe increase aggression." → Over-hedged; too weak

D) RULE: 'might' and 'could' signal possibility from evidence; 'may' signals general probability. Match your modal to how certain the evidence actually is.
The article uses different modals carefully. 'Might transfer' hedges the experiment's conclusion — one study is not proof. 'Could be designed' makes a conditional suggestion — it's not inevitable, but possible. 'May have influence' states a reasonable probability. Each modal is calibrated to the strength of the evidence behind the claim. This is what makes the writing scientifically credible.
Language 19

Language Point 3: Non-Defining Relative Clauses

who which commas
A) "Daredevil, who is blind, and Professor X, who is paralyzed, promote diversity."
→ Non-defining: the clauses ADD information but don't identify who they are

B) Compare: "The researcher who led the Stanford study believes games can be redesigned."
→ Defining: 'who led the Stanford study' tells us WHICH researcher (without it, unclear)

C) ❌ "Daredevil who is blind is a positive role model." → Missing commas = defining (sounds like there are multiple Daredevi's)
✅ "Daredevil, who is blind, is a positive role model." → Commas = non-defining, adds information

D) RULE: Non-defining (commas) = extra information, can be removed without changing meaning. Defining (no commas) = identifies WHICH one; cannot be removed.
This distinction matters practically. "The student who cheated was expelled" (defining) tells us which student — the clause identifies them. "My brother, who cheated, was expelled" (non-defining) adds information about my already-identified brother. In the superhero text, Daredevil is already named — the non-defining clause adds his disability, which is the key information supporting Greenberg's argument about positive representation.
🌟

Lesson Complete

🧪

Stanford VR

Superheroes transfer helpfulness

👶

Kids & Power

Play processes fear and anxiety

⚠️

Modern Risk

Aggression in today's heroes

🎮

Design Matters

Entertainment can train empathy

Perhaps giving us all the power to be a little more like Superman.